Kabuki
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The following was my essay last time for my project. I just post here for everyone to share =D
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Introduction
Kabuki (歌舞伎
is a theatric art form, and like any other art form, its popularity is very much linked to its historical risings and artistic value. The word “kabuki” is actually a Chinese compound word; “Ka” meaning song, “bu” meaning dance while “ki” meaning skill or trick. Hence, the rough translation of kabuki will be “song-dance-skill”. It is known for the stylization of its drama and for the elaborate make-up worn by its performers. Having gone through numerous government oppressions and interference, it is certainly a miracle that it is still surviving today. Hardly anyone today will deny Kabuki’s place in the world as an ancient and surviving traditional Japanese art form.
This academic paper will attempt to decipher KabukiÂ’s future by first analyzing itÂ’s past and present. It is divided into three sections: the past, present and future of Kabuki. The past of Kabuki focuses on the creation of Kabuki, its evolution and its possible hidden political agendas. Following which is a view on how the Kabuki has adapted itself into the modern world, how its current popularity is taken into consideration by new technologies. Finally, we will discuss the future of the Kabuki, how for instance current efforts are taken to ensure KabukiÂ’s future survivability, provide suggestions as to how KabukiÂ’s popularity can be maintained and improved, and explain why Kabuki will continue to exist in the future.
PAST
Origins of the Kabuki
The historical creator of Kabuki is known as O-Kuni, the daughter of a blacksmith named Nakamura Sanemom. She performed a new style of dance drama in 1586 at the dry river bed of Kyoto. This was the first time a performance has been designed to cater to the entertainment of the common folks, and not the aristocrats. O-Kuni soared to fame quickly. (Bowers 1952: 39). One possible reason was her performance was of an erotic nature. In a conservative Japanese society where such display of eroticism was chastised, such a performance greatly aroused general interest and attention. Furthermore, before the advent of the Kabuki, the only dramatic expression of the Japanese common man had been sacred dances in temples, folk dances during festive seasons, and the annual subscription performances of the nobles (Bowers 1952: 40). Since individuals were not allowed to rise into the higher social class, they had, for centuries, no form of public entertainment that was ever catered specially for them. Hence, the curiosity of the people, the need for entertainment instead of more civil wars, may well be the catalyst fuelling the early growth and popularity of the Kabuki. Furthermore, as O-KuniÂ’s popularity grew, there were increasing interest in the dance from nobles and warriors. However, they were not permitted to be seen in public with commoners, resulting in the construction of special screened boxes known as sajiki at the side of O-KuniÂ’s stage (Bowyer 1952: 42). In 1607, she performed before the Tokugawa Shogun in Edo, confirming the fact that KabukiÂ’s reach had extended to classes way above the commoners.
The increasing popularity of the Kabuki at that time also seemed to spur further growth and development in its more elaborate themes which gradually grew into playlets. Famous accounts of historical events and stories from popular romances of musical story tellers formed the basis of performances. With its ever rising popularity at this period of time, it seems inevitable that Kabuki would evolve to gain even more popularity among commoners and aristocrats alike, as people and performers start to cater to their monetary interests. As we shall see, Kabuki will evolve into a portrayal of sexual inferences conflicting with the morals of the Japanese society, leading to oppressions and imposed restrictions by the Tokugawa Shogunate.
Pleasure WomenÂ’s Kabuki
After O-KuniÂ’s death, Kabuki evolved into a form that emphasized on the women performers and the pleasures offered to the spectators, both on stage and off stage. Needless to say, the popularity was immense (Bowyer 1952: 43). However, this form of Kabuki used O-KuniÂ’s creation as a front to demonstrate the charms of the performers, and not its artistic value. It was in fact a vehicle for prostitution. For this reason, Kabuki was also written as "歌舞妓" (singing, dancing, prostitute) during the Edo Period (Bowyers 1952: 37). This form of Kabuki may have developed because of the popularity of the erotic nature of O-KuniÂ’s first performance. Such a degeneration of the Kabuki from an art form to a means of selling the body may have continued for many years, if it was not stopped by the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1629, when women were banned from appearing on stage.
Young ManÂ’s Kabuki
After the ban on female Kabuki, and due to the strong demand for the continuation of Kabuki performances, handsome young men took over the reins. These young men, also known as wakasku, were identified by a distinguishing forelock, a symbol of youth, beauty and grace (Bowyer 1952: 45). The role of these young men was simple; they entertain older man, carried their swords on formal occasions and in the battlefield where women were not allowed, served as catamites. In short, their role was basically as a sexual and entertainment avenue for the common people.
Two of the more advanced Young Men’s Kabuki performances were described in a document called Mirror of Art (Gei Kagami). Unlike in Women’s Kabuki, the design of the dance and plays in Young man’s Kabuki were not as intricate and tended to look naïve at times. (Bowyer 1952: 46) However it should be noted that Young man’s Kabuki do contain three very important elements of an emerging art form: order, gradation and concentration. These elements were the bases of Kabuki that will eventually become the building blocks of the more modern and fully developed Kabuki.
It soon became apparent to the government that such plays and the immoralities that were being propagated were detrimental to the social structure of Japan. Fights between warriors for the attention of such Kabuki actors were common occurrences. A series of restrictive measures were then implemented. Subsequently, in the same year, 1653, Young ManÂ’s Kabuki was formally banned. All actors were forced to shave their distinctive forelocks and dancing and music were also prohibited from the stage (Bowers 1952: 46).
It did not take long before Kabuki evolved again; young men were replaced by older men to appease the government and also to satisfy the demands of the common folks, thus showing the adaptability of the Kabuki. -
MenÂ’s Kabuki
MenÂ’s Kabuki (Yaro Kabuki) forms the real bases of modern kabuki. Without sex and physical beauty to sustain MenÂ’s Kabuki, and impelled further by the dramatic yearnings of the people at large, Kabuki developed into a true art form. (Bowyer 1952: 50)
It is interesting that government oppression and interference of the various original types of Kabuki, far from weakening it, actually quickened its development. Real fundamentals of the theatre, such as disguise, imitation, deception, story and mime were given a new and mighty impetus. The ban on womenÂ’s Kabuki and Young Men Kabuki had forced Kabuki to focus on quality content and acting instead of just sexual references.
In 1664, the first kabuki play after the ban on Young Men Kabuki, The OutcastÂ’s Revenge (Hinin no adauchi), appeared. It is a continuous story divided into many different acts. The change of scenes required by these new plays led to the first usage of curtains in Kabuki (Bowyer 1952: 4
. By using curtains, the stage of Kabuki became independent of NohÂ’s stage.
There are a few interesting and worthy points to note. KabukiÂ’s popularity never really diminished since its creation. As discussed earlier, the cause of this could be attributed to a few factors, namely a prolonged period of peace, a lack of entertainment for the commoners, and the interference of the Tokugawa government. The prolonged period of peace allowed the creativity of the commoners to run free and provided room for artistic expressions. The lack of entertainment resulted in the quick embrace of the Kabuki when it entered this neglected market. Finally, the interference of the Tokugawa government stopped the degeneration of the Kabuki into a vehicle for prostitution and homosexuality, and encouraged it to evolve into a true form of art that readily accepted by both commoners and aristocrats. Without this interference, the future of the Kabuki would have been unimaginable.
Hidden political agenda
The different forms of art that emerged during the Tokugawa era evidently reflected the peopleÂ’s impression of the society at that time. However, they were designed within a more elaborate and dramatic setting. It was a common habit for artists and playwrights to portray what they see, hear and feel onto the stage. Hence, with reference to the persistence of the people in the Kabuki even after several phases of change, we can conclude that the interest in Kabuki is not solely confined to the sexual desires of the people, but rather, a deeper ideal and motivation. Given the oppressive nature of the Tokugawa era, its people must have sought refuge in Kabuki plays and found an avenue to let their voices be heard. The explicit and sometimes extreme form of drama portrayals could be a reflection of the nature of their life. The fact that plays are based and drawn from war histories and incidents stretching from the Samurai period, seemed to fuel our analysis that Kabuki has a certain touch of political agenda amid its play acting and sexual contents.
The determination of the Tokugawa to maintain censorship on Kabuki shows their wariness on Kabuki. As there were no military campaigns after 1615 where military men could gain distinction and recognition, status were largely passed down by the forebearers. In a society where honour and glory were highly placed, any attempts to smear or question the integrity of any military men were considered a big taboo and an insult to the warriorsÂ’ dignity. Because Kabuki had such tendencies to question the authorities and customs, numerous efforts were made, though with little success, by the Tokugawa government to impose severe restrictions on Kabuki. This is because Kabuki, though an entertainment avenue, is a form of media that had the same influence on the mindset of people as current media has on us now. The Tokugawa government, being a samurai government, will therefore prefer their subjects to respect them instead of questioning them.
Upon further consideration, Kabuki might have been used as a political tool to gain popularity. Given the oppressive nature of the Tokugawa authorities and their brutal way of seizing power, it is interesting to note that they did not attempt to ban Kabuki with military intimidation and force. This is because given appropriate censorship, the scenes in Kabuki plays, especially the military kind, could serve to rally support for the Tokugawa government, boost morale and inculcate old virtues of loyalty and sacrifice. Kabuki thus serves as a double-edged sword for the government. Keeping in mind that throughout the Tokugawa and Meiji era there were many drastic reforms and changes, it should not be surprising that Kabuki served as a propaganda tool for the government to encourage people to sacrifice and serve for a greater and noble cause. We can see the similarity today with government controlled media serving as a propaganda tool to sway public opinions.
We can thus see that the persistence and popularity of Kabuki in the past was attributed to two main important reasons. Kabuki allowed for the commoners to express what they felt on the stage, and the government allowed it so that their ideas and beliefs were spread through the beautiful and intricate movements of the Kabuki actors. This subtle balance ensured the survival of Kabuki. It is also interesting to note that the Tokugawa government managed to utilize the Kabuki in a way similar to how political leaders today make use of the media to sway public judgments. Also, the second reason was the lack of entertainment for the commoners at that time, as has been mentioned earlier. -
*yawnz* many many times...
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Present
Modern Kabuki
Modernisation of Kabuki began with the onset of the Meiji Restoration. This is because this is a period of social reforms and political modernization. During the first decade of the Meiji Period, owners and managers sought to attract audiences of the new elite and middle class (Brandon 1999: 21). Theatres were upgraded, and plays were modernized and westernized to appeal to foreign residents as well as visiting dignitaries. In the first two decades of the Meiji era, Kabuki plays were created to reflect European customs, technology and ideas that were flooding Japan (Brandon 1999: 22). This change serves to help Kabuki in increasing its popularity, not only by attracting the locals as a traditional art form, but also by catering to the tastes of foreigners in its contents and stage props.
In 1879, Kanya XII, a Kabuki manager, placed English actresses on the stage after his ascertainment of Western theatrical practice that European societies allowed actresses on stage (Brandon 1999: 23). This is interesting because it is well known that actresses were banned in 1629 from public stages, and it illustrates the change in mindset of the Japanese after the Tokugawa system had fallen apart. It is also fascinating that a police regulation in 1890 required actresses in place of actors to perform female roles in order to prevent foreigners from ridiculing “the extremely licentious custom of men dressing as women” (Ihara 1956-1963, 7: 375). Certainly, Kabuki had once again adapted itself to cater to the public, evident to Kabuki’s quick embrace of change to maintain its popularity.
Kabuki suffered a setback after Japan’s defeat in the Pacific war. The severe economic downturn that resulted from the wars meant that Japan do not have the means to support so many Kabuki actors. As a result, the number of theatres reduced by half. Despite this, Kabuki plays to packed houses (100,000 persons monthly, 12 months a year on the average) (Bowers 1952: 52). In 1947, as Japan was still recovering from the loss and destruction of WWII, Nakamura Utaemon (Born 1917 Tokyo) performed as Yatsuhashi in the play “Kago Tsurube” (The Murder of Yatsuhashi), reminding Japan of this wonderful traditional theatric art form that was banned, for a short period, by allied occupying forces. Here, we see the Japan’s devotion to Kabuki. It is like a déjà vu; Kabuki rises again after World War II compared to its rise after the civil wars before the Tokugawa came to power. As felt by Bowers when he was in Japan, the way in which “the audiences were moved to ecstasy and to tears by the stage” shows that Kabuki has with it a major aspect of nationalism (Bowers 1942, preface: xiv). In his words, “what makes a Japanese laugh or cry, what and where the roots of how he thinks are, seemed to have answers in his theatre.” The familiar themes illustrated in Kabuki resonate and consolidate the Japanese identity, with the culture and beliefs that flowed in their blood from the time of their ancestry to modern times. The all time dramatic favourites of romantic love suicides and thought provoking karmaric retributions are indeed, what makes a Japanese laugh or cry and provides a glimpse into the Japanese way of thinking.
However, with new entertainment technology such as televisions, cinemas and VCD/DVD players, it is interesting to note that the ancient art form, Kabuki, has not been totally phased out. In fact, it still remains popular with audiences, even having performances overseas . KabukiÂ’s four centuries of experience in adapting and changing to new circumstances is not something to be reckoned with. We shall see in the following paragraphs how Kabuki continues to maintain its popularity.
The new wondrous performance technology of action pictures were imported during the first two decades of the 20th century. As early as 1901, a film was used as a backdrop for a Kabuki production at the Ichimura-za (Brandon 1999: 25). Kabuki plays were also recorded on film. This shows again how Kabuki had embraced the most recent and popular technology to boost its popularity. However, the film recordings enthralled audiences so much that the Association of Tokyo Theatres (Tokyo Gekijō Kumiai) attempted to ban Kabuki actors from appearing in the films (Nojima 1988, appendix: 31-32), perhaps as an attempt to prevent the loss of audiences for live performances.
In the early 20th century, films were not yet a serious competitor to the Kabuki, but two new forms of live theatre were starting to challenge the Kabuki’s dominance. Shinpa, literally “new style”, drama put contemporary events from Meiji-period Japan onstage, while shingei, “new drama”, was transplanted European modern drama (Brandon 1999: 26). With these two emerging art forms challenging the Kabuki, it should be of no surprise that Kabuki will rise up to the challenge and once again evolve. The life of Kabuki has always been based and thrived on changes in circumstance and adaptations to adversaries. Through the various bans and challenges posed by the authorities, more interesting and subtle performances had emerged. This shows the flexibility of the Japanese in adapting and borrowing traits from the Western counterparts while retaining the essence and character of Japanese roots, exemplified by the adaptations of foreign words using Katakana and the adaptations in science and technology after World War II. From this understanding and observations of the Japanese, we can say that Shinpa and Shingei may one day interweave to bring Kabuki forward in its never-ending journey of evolution.
It is also interesting to note that Kabuki remains as popular with the Japanese even after they had been defeated in the war. As such, it is reasonable to conclude that the common Japanese and Kabuki have over many generations accumulated a strong bond between them, a bond that has the ability to traverse through time and space. -
FUTURE
Kabuki: In The Next Century
In Present Japan, despite the influx of new entrants such as television programmes, commercial theatre, ballet and such, Kabuki is still giving them a run for their popularity.
Japan faced the end of the 19th century with an uncertain future. The instability in society had an effect on Kabuki: sizes of all audiences were smaller. However, there were more audiences for local performances. From Japan's most prosperous period (Tokugawa) to her bleakest (Post War), Kabuki has always been an integral part of Japanese culture. We can thus conclude that Japan and Kabuki are entities that are very much intertwined. Hence, it can be expected that Kabuki will continue to evolve and adapt to current expectations as the Japanese society progresses.
In order to revive interest in the Kabuki, old classics have been dug up and adapted to contemporary kabuki. Plays in this category, performed this year, include “Ogasawa Sodo” (Trouble in the Ogasawa Clan) and “Tomioka Koi Yamabirah” (Love blooming in Tomioka). Although these plays have different characteristics and are from different eras, they are now filled with classical romanticism to appeal to the audiences today (ITI Japan Centre 2001: 53).
Kabuki was never meant to be a passive form of entertainment. For centuries, the informed audiences (who know about the stories) were Kabuki’s partner in creation. Exclamations were made at appropriate moments to further enhance the atmosphere of the performance. Kabuki’s future survival depends on the education of a new generation of audiences to fill up the gap left by the previous one (Bach 1989, 6: 87-8. Efforts have been made at kabuki education for the public by Japan’s National Theatre with its ‘Kabuki Classroom” series. The Kabuki management also played its part in its slick new publicity campaign in youth-oriented media. These help in increasing Kabuki awareness among the younger generation and the non-Japanese, thus helping to boost its popularity. However, lectures on exclamations made by audiences of the older generation will not be able to move anyone to make genuine exclamations from the heart, which is what participation in the performance is all about. Kabuki’s symbiosis with the audience can only be strengthened when the audience can involve themselves again.
Likewise, Kabuki actors and actresses have to develop their own flair for the performance, which cannot be taught to them through lectures. Finding people to perform Kabuki is tough; finding people who has the talent to perform Kabuki is even tougher. Thus, active action must be undertaken to constantly look out for talents. It is heartening to know that new actors are coming to fill in the shoes of predecessors. Especially noticeable is Ichikawa Edizo XI, who gained a wider audience beyond Kabuki when he starred in the television drama Miyamoto Musashi on NHK. Blessed with good looks and talents, he drew large crowds whenever he performed. Apart from Ebizo, more young stars were arising. This includes 31 year old Nakamura Shido whose popularity rocketed after a performance in Asakusa (ITI Japan Centre 2005: 57-5. All this show that despite being in the modern era with much more avenues of entertainment than before, Kabuki is still a relatively popular leisure activity. A picture in the Straits Times, February 6 2006, portrayed Japanese children in kabuki makeup, depicting the efforts made by the Japanese in passing down this traditional art form to the next generation. This is important because the future popularity of the Kabuki depends on the young, and the passing down of this art form from generation to generation ensures its survivability.
While it is essential for the Kabuki actors to continually innovate themselves to appeal to the masses, it is also important to take note that such persistence should not compromise the quality of the Kabuki plays. By incorporating western influence and elements into Kabuki plays, it robs the soul of Kabuki acts. It is therefore the responsibility of the current batch of Kabuki actors and teachers to realize that there is an important need to strike a balance between increasing its popularity while maintaining its authenticity and keeping the essence of Kabuki unblemished. This is a trap to be avoided at all costs. Hence, our group would instead suggest that efforts be made to solidify the fundamentals of Kabuki, instead of focusing purely on its popularity. Rather than relying on foreign elements in promoting Kabuki, it would be better to enhance the Japanese ethnicity of such performances to increase its popularity, since Japan is a rather homogenous society. By going back to its roots, it evokes the pride of Japanese towards Kabuki and possibly elevates KabukiÂ’s status further as a national art. Not only will this increase awareness of Kabuki locally, it will also trigger reactions in other countries interested in the Japanese culture.
Undeniably, good scripts are also a must for the continuation of Kabuki. As shown by the play “Kanedehon Chusingura”, a good script that echoes well with the commoners can last for years (ITI Japan Centre 2003: 5, or even centuries. In the future and modern era, there exists a need to search for talented scriptwriters who can bring about a second wave of Kabuki enthusiasm.
In our opinion, KabukiÂ’s path of evolution to such a fine form of art has its basis in economics. In the words of Adam Smith, the father of economics, it is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. Similarly for the Kabuki, it was the self interest of the Kabuki managers that led to the progress of Kabuki as an art form, although it may have degenerated to a vehicle of prostitution if not for the Tokugawa government, as has been pointed out earlier. Hence, the economic reality of Kabuki as art and as business is an important issue that requires careful monitoring since it is the basis behind KabukiÂ’s popularity today. It is only logical that if Kabuki were to be attempted to be brought back to their past glory days, it would be essential for Kabuki enthusiasts to be able to make a decent living out of it. This is where the Japanese government can step in by investing more resources to promote Kabuki plays and the Arts in general. -
Sugoi ne~
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Conclusion
In the era of modern Japan, new and alternatives forms of entertainment are available to the ordinary Japanese. Pop icons like Ayumi Hamasaki are threatening KabukiÂ’s popularity. However, to dismiss Kabuki as an old art long due for burial in history would be an understatement. While it is true that Kabuki has ceased to exist as a monopoly of entertainment for the Japanese commoners, it would be a mistake to view Kabuki as just an entertainment with no qualities. The complicated playlets, music and style that are unique to Kabuki make it an exceptional art form. While pop icons seldom last long, Kabuki has endured the savageness of time, and has evolved into a refined art form. The danger of Kabuki becoming a lost art is real. Hence, Japan has joined institutes like the International Theatre Institute (ITI) to promote Kabuki internationally and help in the conservation of the traditional arts (International Theatre Institute).
Aptly, we should quote from the late head of Shochiku Company, one of the largest theatrical monopolies in Japan in 1940s. “I grant you every danger you mention. But for half a century I have been hearing the same thing, ‘Kabuki cannot live.’ You may question my logic, but the fact has remained that Kabuki isn’t dead yet. In my opinion it never will disappear.” (Bowers 1942, preface: xvi). Dire prediction has been made for Kabuki through the ages. However, none of them came true. In fact, just as Confucianism is linked to the Chinese, we would boldly declare that Kabuki is linked to the Japanese. As long as Japan exists, Kabuki, as one of its traditional art form will continue to do so. Kabuki has with it many aspects which modern theatre cannot replace, one of it being its link with feudalistic Japan and her ideals. Some historical incidents may spread through Kabuki better than through textbooks because learning history from Kabuki is definitely more interesting than reading from books. One may also say that emerging forms of art like J-pop may pose a challenge to Kabuki. However, pop culture, unlike Kabuki, has never been trialed nor tested through the ages. Moreover, Kabuki is a Japanese art form whose creation was untainted by outside influences. All these make Kabuki irreplaceable to the original Japanese. As such, we should say with confidence that Kabuki will continue to be in existence for many years to come. -
wah lao you mean that was not all ah?!!!
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my A essay mah... I spent a lot a lot a lot of time on it...Originally posted by AndrewPKYap:wah lao you mean that was not all ah?!!!